Role models who challenge stereotypes might also be a way forward, says a report commissioned by the Office for Standards in Education which focuses on England.

Estelle Morris, the Schools Minister, said that the "underachievement by boys at school is a major challenge," but that the report reveals that "there is no simple, single solution to tackle the problem".

The report, Recent Research on Gender and Educational Performance, was written by academics from the University of Cambridge School of Education and Homerton College.

It says that in many schools a significant gap has grown in the academic performance of boys and girls, which schools need to tackle with strategies specifically designed to motivate under-achieving boys.

Boys' performance relative to girls at getting five or more GCSE grades A*-C

Since the late 80s, boys have lagged behind in reading and writing at both primary and secondary level. Although the difference seems not to be getting wider, nor is it being reduced.

Overall GCSE results show that girls at all levels do better, but the gap is bigger among the higher achievers. For example, in 1995, 14% of girls got A* or A grades in GCSE English compared with only 8% of boys. Across grades A* to C the figures were 66% of girls and only 49% of boys.

The influence of gender is also apparent in maths and science - but the other way round, with girls continuing to opt out and boys predominating in science A levels and degrees.

Although the gap in performance is clear, the reasons for its emergence remain distinctly cloudy. The report, which provides an overview of research on the subject in the last decade, says that "the overwhelming message ... is that there are no simple explanations".

'Macho' peer groups

Among the factors that might play a part, the report says, are an "anti-achievement culture" among some boys, macho peer groups disrupting schoolwork, low expectations, teaching styles that suit girls rather than boys, a loss of motivation brought on by a loss of traditional male jobs and the way that pupils are grouped in lessons. But no definitive explanation has emerged.

Among other recommendations, the report says that English should be taught in a way that engages both boys and girls, in order to counter the image of literacy as a "feminised subject". This awareness should influence the choice of books studied, including "the need for non-fiction".

The report also emphasises the importance of schools examining the extent of any gap in achievement between their male and female pupils and the predominance of one gender in some subjects, so that the impact of any initiatives can be monitored and measured.

Estelle Morris says that the government is addressing the underachievement of boys as a "priority" and that there are a number of initiatives already underway.

Pilot schemes in Durham, Islington, Lancashire and Stockport are investigating how boys can be better motivated in school and the out-of-school study centres supported by football clubs will target underachieving boys.

The minister also said that local authorities will be required to consider the influence of gender in their Educational Development Plans.

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